Ethereum, Layer 1 and Layer 2 Networks Explained

How smart-contract blockchains work: proof of work vs proof of stake, Ethereum gas, rollups and the main layer 1 and layer 2 networks. Start with the mechanics, then use the network guides and weekly notes for Solana, Polkadot, Avalanche, BNB Chain and others.

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1. Proof of Work vs Proof of Stake: How They Differ and Why It Matters — Proof of Work secures a chain with computing power and electricity; Proof of Stake with locked coins that can be destroyed. How each works, with sources.
2. What Is Proof-of-Stake? How It Works, Using Ethereum as the Example — Proof-of-stake secures a blockchain with locked-up coins, not computing power. How validators, finality, slashing and the main risks work.
3. What is Proof of Work (Pow)? How does it really work? — Proof of Work, or PoW, is a guardian system of blockchains and computer system resources.
4. What is Sharding in Crypto? – What does it mean? — Blockchains have had scaling issues ever since their creation.
5. Layer 1 vs Layer 2 blockchain: what is the difference? — Layer 1 is the base blockchain that settles transactions. Layer 2 runs them elsewhere and posts the data back. How rollups, sidechains and blobs differ.
6. What Is Ethereum? How the Network, Ether and Smart Contracts Work — Ethereum explained: the network, ether (ETH), smart contracts, gas fees, staking with 32 ETH, and upgrades from launch in 2015 to Fusaka in 2025.
7. What Is Ethereum (ETH)? How It Works, What Changed in 2025 and What Comes Next — Ethereum explained: what ETH is used for, how proof of stake and gas fees work, the Pectra and Fusaka upgrades, and where Glamsterdam stands in October 2026.
8. How Ethereum smart contracts work: accounts, the EVM and gas — An Ethereum smart contract is code at its own address. It runs only when a transaction calls it, every node runs it in the EVM, and the sender pays gas.
9. What Are Gas Fees? Complete 2026 Blockchain Guide — Every time you execute a transaction on Ethereum - whether you're swapping tokens on a DEX, minting an NFT, or deploying a smart contract - you pay a fee.
10. What is gas in Ethereum? Fees, base fee, tip and the 2026 repricing — Gas measures the computation an Ethereum transaction needs. Fee = gas used × (base fee + tip). How it works and what Glamsterdam would change.
11. Gas Limit on Ethereum: What It Is, How It Works and What Changes in 2026 — Ethereum's gas limit is the most gas a transaction may use. How it differs from gas price, the 60M block limit, and the 200M plan under Glamsterdam.
12. Ethereum gas fees explained: units of gas used × (base fee + priority fee) — How an Ethereum gas fee is calculated: gas used × (base fee + priority fee). Worked example, who gets each part, why fees move, how to pay less.
13. Ethereum Layer 2 explained: how rollups batch transactions off the main chain — How Ethereum rollups execute transactions off-chain, post data to Ethereum in blobs, and prove it. Includes the 2024–2026 blob upgrades and what to check.
14. Get to Know The Merge, Another Major Change in the Ethereum Network — One of the things at the forefront of public attention is Ethereum’s Merge, which will take place this September.
15. Ethereum 2.0: How Does It Differ From Ethereum 1.0? — 0) onto the public mainnet has been a long-awaited event for many. 0 is, what the Ethereum roadmap looks like, and when the release date will be.
16. Who Created Ethereum? Vitalik Buterin & 8 Co-Founders — Discover who created Ethereum — Vitalik Buterin's story, all 8 co-founders, the 2015 launch timeline, and who controls Ethereum today. Full 2026 guide.
17. Vitalik Buterin Net Worth in 2026: ETH Holdings, Donations & Full Wealth Breakdown — Vitalik Buterin's net worth sits at an estimated $467 million to $750 million as of early 2026 - and nearly every dollar of it is verifiable on-chain.
18. Bitcoin vs Ethereum: purpose, verification, block time and supply — Bitcoin is fixed-supply money secured by proof-of-work. Ethereum is a smart contract platform on proof-of-stake with 12-second slots and no supply cap.
19. Bitcoin vs Ethereum: Key Differences & Comparison 2026 — Bitcoin vs Ethereum compared side-by-side in 2026. Price, market cap, use cases, technology, and which one fits your portfolio — full guide.
20. Ethereum Burn Address Explained: How ETH Burning Creates Deflation in 2026 — Learn how the Ethereum burn address works, how EIP-1559 burns ETH, and whether Ethereum is truly deflationary in 2026. Complete guide with live data.
21. What Is a Sepolia Faucet? The Complete Beginner's Guide 2026 — Learn what a Sepolia faucet is, how it works, and how to get free test ETH for Ethereum development in under 5 minutes. Updated for 2026.
22. EthereumPow (ETHW): What’s New For Miners After The Merge? — After Ethereum successfully launched The Merge upgrade in September, the spotlight was placed on Ethereum (ETH) coin mining.
23. Is Ethereum Halal? A Complete Islamic Finance Guide (2026) — Is Ethereum halal? Most Islamic scholars say yes.
24. What Is Arbitrum (ARB)? Complete 2026 Guide — Learn what Arbitrum is, how Optimistic Rollup works, what the ARB token does, how to bridge ETH, and how Arbitrum compares to zkSync and Optimism.
25. What Is PolygonScan, and How Do You Check a Polygon Transaction? — PolygonScan is the block explorer for Polygon PoS. How to look up a transaction, read its status and POL fee, fix a stuck transfer and revoke approvals.
26. Polygon (POL) in 2026: 7 Reasons to Buy Now — Why buy Polygon (POL) in 2026? Expert analysis of 19,000+ dApps, $450M institutional raise, sub-$0.01 gas fees, ZK roadmap, and staking yield.
27. Solana Blockchain Ecosystem: Complete Guide to SOL & DeFi — Discover how Solana's 8-component architecture powers its DeFi, NFT, and payments ecosystem in 2026. Understand PoH, staking, risks, and top protocols.
28. What Is Polkadot (DOT)? How It Works, Staking and Latest Changes — Polkadot connects many blockchains under one shared security model. How the relay chain, coretime, staking and DOT work, updated October 2026.
29. What is Kusama (KSM) and how is it different from Polkadot — Kusama is Polkadot's canary network: same code, real value at stake. How its governance, staking and KSM supply differ, plus the October 2026 JAM vote.
30. What is ATOM? The Cosmos Hub token, its rules and latest changes — ATOM is the Cosmos Hub's staking and governance token. On-chain rules, the 2026 Neutron recovery and the Gaia v29 vote, with dates.
31. What Is NEAR Protocol? Sharding, Staking and the End of the Gas Rebate — NEAR is a sharded proof-of-stake Layer 1. Its 30% developer gas rebate ends with nearcore 2.14; mainnet votes are planned for early November 2026.
32. Vasil Hard Fork Explained: Cardano Upgrade Guide 2026 — Learn what the Vasil hard fork did to Cardano: CIP-31, CIP-32, CIP-33, CIP-40, diffusion pipelining, and ecosystem impact explained clearly.
33. What Is Fantom (FTM)? The Network That Became Sonic — Fantom was a layer-1 smart contract chain whose FTM token upgrades 1:1 to Sonic (S). What changed, which routes still work, and what the figures mean.
34. MultiversX (EGLD, formerly Elrond): Supernova Upgrade, the September 2026 Halt, and How the Network Works — EGLD is MultiversX's native coin. Supernova went live on 10 Sep 2026 with 600 ms rounds; an exploit attempt halted mainnet from 19 to 24 Sep.
35. Harmony (ONE) in 2026: the August exploit, the shutdown plan and the move to Ethereum — Harmony is winding down its Layer 1 after the August 2026 exploit and moving ONE to Ethereum. Dates, migration terms, what can't move, and the background.
36. What Is Zilliqa (ZIL)? Complete 2026 Guide — Zilliqa is a sharding-based Layer 1 blockchain. Learn how ZIL works, what Scilla is, how to buy and stake ZIL, and how Zilliqa 2.0 changed the network.
37. What Is VeChain? VET, VTHO and How the Network Works After Hayabusa — VeChain explained: what VeChainThor does, how VET and VTHO work after the Hayabusa staking upgrade, real supply-chain use and the 2026 Interstellar fork.
38. What is IOTX? IoTeX's coin, its 2026 upgrades and its supply — IOTX is IoTeX's native coin for fees, staking and delegate votes, with a 10B max supply. The October 2026 Zanzibar fork moved voter rewards on-chain.
39. What Is Kava (KAVA)? The Cosmos-EVM Chain Now Focused on Stablecoins, Tokenised Assets and AI — Kava is a Layer-1 linking Cosmos and EVM chains. Its 2026 plan centres on native USDT, tokenised assets and AI. Fixed supply since 2024.
40. Moonbeam — Moonbeam is an Ethereum-compatible smart contract parachain on Polkadot that makes it easy to build natively interoperable applications.
41. Theta — Theta.
42. Theta Fuel — Theta Fuel.
43. Top 10 BEP20 Wallets for 2026: Ranked by Security & Features — Compare the top 10 BEP20 wallets for 2026. Expert rankings of MetaMask, Trust Wallet, Ledger, and more — by security, DeFi access, and setup ease.
44. What Is OMG Network (OMG)? The Plasma Chain, the Token and Where It Stands in 2026 — OMG Network was an early Ethereum Plasma scaling chain. L2BEAT now lists it as archived. History, how it worked and what OMG holders should know.
45. OMG Network — OMG Networkis an interoperable decentralized exchange built on Ethereum blockchain.
46. What Is Holochain (HOT)? HoloFuel Has Not Launched and HOT Cannot Be Redeemed — Holochain is an open-source P2P app framework. HOT is Holo's 2018 voucher token. As of Oct 2026, HoloFuel hasn't launched and HOT can't be redeemed.
47. What Is Litecoin’s MimbleWimble Upgrade? Why Is LTC Delisted? — What Is Litecoin’s MimbleWimble Upgrade? Why Is LTC Delisted?
48. Best Privacy Crypto Projects and Airdrops 2026 | Complete Guide — Privacy is no longer optional in crypto - it's becoming essential.
49. Ravencoin — Ravencoin (RVN) is an open-source blockchain project specializing in the creation and peer-to-peer transfer of assets.
50. What is Zebec Network? Complete ZBCN Nacha & Staking Guide 2026 — Discover Zebec Network (ZBCN): $500M+ annual payroll volume, Nacha partnership connecting to $85T ACH network, 10-22% staking APY, JP Morgan Kinexys.
51. What Is Cartesi (CTSI)? Linux Rollups, PRT Fraud Proofs and the October 2026 Shift — Cartesi runs app code in a Linux machine and settles results on Ethereum. What CTSI does, how PRT fraud proofs work, and the Foundation's October 2026 shift.
52. What Is iExec RLC? The Confidential Computing Token, Explained (2026) — iExec RLC explained: the token behind a confidential computing network on Arbitrum, the 2026 Bellecour sidechain sunset, Nox, supply and risks.
53. Ankr — Ankr is a cloud computing platform that connects blockchain protocols for staking and other development purposes.
54. Ethereum Gas Price Explained: Base Fee, Priority Fee and What You Actually Pay — How Ethereum gas price works in 2026: base fee, priority fee, max fee, blob fees, a worked cost example and what Fusaka and Glamsterdam change.
55. Ethereum Price Prediction 2026: ETH Targets Explained — Ethereum entered 2026 at roughly half its all-time high - and investors are split on what comes next.
56. Ethereum Classic Price Prediction 2026–2030: Can ETC Hit $100? — Ethereum classic price prediction for 2026–2030. Expert ETC forecasts, Olympia upgrade analysis, market cap math for $100, and key bullish/bearish factors.
57. MATIC Price Prediction 2026–2030: Expert Polygon Forecast — Expert MATIC price prediction for 2026–2030 with RSI, MACD, and Fibonacci analysis. Bull, base, and bear-case scenarios for Polygon (POL) investors.
58. SOL Price History: The 2022 Predictions vs. Where It Trades Now — 66 percent in just 24 hours. So, what is the price prediction for Solana (SOL) in 2022? Which way will the market swing?
59. DOT Price Prediction 2026–2030: Expert Forecast & Analysis — What will DOT be worth in 2026–2030? Expert analysis of Polkadot price forecasts, technical indicators, bull/bear scenarios, and trading strategies.
60. AVAX Price Prediction: Where Avalanche Stands in October 2026 — AVAX traded at $8.77 on 25 October 2026, 94% below its peak. What forecast models say, what changed on Avalanche, and the numbers that matter.
61. Cardano (ADA) Price Prediction 2026-2040: Full Forecast — Comprehensive Cardano (ADA) price prediction covering 2026 through 2040. Discover technical analysis, bullish catalysts, and historical on-chain metrics.
62. Fantom (FTM) Price History: The 2022 Predictions vs. Today — Fantom is one of the fastest and most scalable platforms for decentralized applications (dApps).
63. Zilliqa (ZIL) Price Prediction 2026–2030: Full Analysis — ZIL price prediction 2026–2030: analyst forecasts, Zilliqa 2.0 upgrade analysis, technical levels, bull/bear scenarios, and investment considerations.
64. Algorand (ALGO) Price History: The 2022 Predictions vs. Today — 3 million. 5 million. From the most recent data, Algorand appears to be gaining more popularity.
65. HBAR Price Prediction: The 2022 Forecasts vs. HBAR in October 2026 — HBAR trades near $0.077 in October 2026, about 86% below its 2021 high. How the 2022 forecasts held up, and what has changed at Hedera since.
66. Tezos Price Prediction 2026–2030: XTZ Forecast — Tezos price prediction 2026–2030 with year-by-year XTZ forecasts, technical analysis, key support/resistance levels, staking guide, and honest risk assessment.
67. EOS Price Prediction 2026–2030: Expert Forecast — EOS price prediction 2026–2030: bear/base/bull scenarios, monthly forecasts, technical analysis (RSI, MACD, SMA), Vaulta impact, and investment risk assessment.
68. IOTA Price Prediction 2026-2030: Can MIOTA Recover? — IOTA was once a top-10 cryptocurrency, built to power machine-to-machine payments for the Internet of Things.
69. ICX Price Prediction 2026–2030: Expert Forecast — ICON's native token has been one of the more quietly persistent altcoins in the crypto space - still alive, still trading, still building.
70. VET Price Prediction: What It Would Take for VeChain to Reach $0.10, Its Old High or $1 — VET trades near $0.0067 (25 Oct 2026). The market cap each target implies, what Hayabusa changed for holders, and what moves VeChain's price.
71. Theta Price Prediction 2026–2030: Expert THETA Forecast — Theta price prediction 2026–2030: analyst forecasts, technical analysis, support levels, trading strategies and risk management for THETA investors.
72. TRX Price Prediction 2026–2030: Where TRON Stands in October 2026 — TRX trades near $0.33 on 25 Oct 2026. TRON's stablecoin flows, staking yield, the TRXS ETF and what forecast models say for 2026–2030.
73. BCH Price Prediction 2026–2030: Expert Forecast — Expert BCH price prediction for 2026–2030. Technical analysis, bull/bear scenarios, monthly forecasts, and risk management strategies for Bitcoin Cash traders.
74. DGB Price Prediction 2026–2030: Expert Analysis — DigiByte (DGB) price prediction 2026–2030 with year-by-year forecasts, RSI/MACD technical analysis, investment risks, and trading strategies.
75. Geth 1.17.8 security fixes: what changed and which version to run now — Geth 1.17.8 fixed five p2p DoS bugs, two tied to the Amsterdam fork. Run v1.17.10, which keeps the fixes and postpones Amsterdam on Hoodi.
76. ETH this week: +0% in seven days, positive funding on perps — Ethereum closed the week at $2,472.38 (+0.1% in 7 days, +27.8% in 30). Market cap, the seven-day range and what the ZIPMEX perp market is charging to hold a position, with sources.
77. ARB, week to September 8, 2026: up 50% in seven days, then a 26% pullback — ARB rose from $0.110 to $0.165 between Sept 1 and 8, 2026 (CoinGecko), peaked Sept 6, then fell. Dated figures, Elara upgrade, unlocks, where it stands now.
78. OP, week to 8 September 2026: up 18% after the airdrop reserve became a growth fund — OP closed 8 September 2026 near $0.11, up 18% on the week, after governance moved 546.9M OP of airdrop reserve into a Foundation growth fund.
79. MegaETH (MEGA) week to September 8, 2026: up 9% to $0.041, still 81% below its high — MEGA rose about 9% in the week to September 8, 2026, to $0.0415. It traded between $0.0364 and $0.0435 and sat 81% below its April 30 high.
80. BASED this week: +4% in seven days, positive funding on perps — Brett closed the week at $0.00524 (+4.0% in 7 days, +26.5% in 30). Market cap, the seven-day range and what the ZIPMEX perp market is charging to hold a position, with sources.
81. POL in September 2026: the weekly snapshot, and what has changed since — POL was about $0.095 on 8 September 2026 and $0.0887 by 25 October. A 100M POL burn and the Coinme deal came in between. Dated, sourced figures.
82. SOL week to 7 September 2026: up 4.7% and holding above $100 after a late-August jump — SOL rose 4.7% in the week to 7 September 2026, to $106.49, after a late-August jump from $77. Dated CoinGecko data and what came next.
83. SOL contract address: how to verify it and avoid fake tokens — The official Wrapped SOL mint on Solana, the bridged versions on other networks, three ways to verify an address and four scams that borrow the SOL name.
84. Polkadot (DOT) price on October 25, 2026: below its September level, dotUSD now live — DOT traded at $1.03 on October 25, 2026, below its September 8 level. Price data, the new dotUSD stablecoin and DOT's issuance cut, with sources.
85. NEAR Protocol, week to 8 September 2026: up 20% in seven days, still 89% below its 2022 peak — NEAR rose about 20% in the week to 8 September 2026, trading between $1.84 and $2.49. Dated CoinGecko figures, the 4 September jump and the issuance vote.
86. AVAX week to 8 September 2026: up 11.7% in seven days, 94% below its record — AVAX was $8.07 on 8 Sep 2026, up 11.7% in a week and 24.7% in a month. CoinGecko figures, the record high, and where the price stood on 25 Oct.
87. ADA this week: +9% in seven days, positive funding on perps — Cardano closed the week at $0.2154 (+8.5% in 7 days, +9.7% in 30). Market cap, the seven-day range and what the ZIPMEX perp market is charging to hold a position, with sources.
88. SUI this week: +11% in seven days, positive funding on perps — Sui closed the week at $0.0₁₁0 (+10.8% in 7 days, +16.4% in 30). Market cap, the seven-day range and what the ZIPMEX perp market is charging to hold a position, with sources.
89. APT this week: +17% in seven days, positive funding on perps — Aptos closed the week at $0.0₁₁0 (+16.5% in 7 days, +6.1% in 30). Market cap, the seven-day range and what the ZIPMEX perp market is charging to hold a position, with sources.
90. SEI in the week to 8 September 2026: +10% on the week, and what has happened since — SEI rose about 10% in the week to 8 Sep 2026 per CoinGecko daily data. Price, market cap, the Giga upgrade timeline and where SEI trades now.
91. MON price since the 8 September 2026 week: down 21%, with the first big unlock on 24 November — MON trades at $0.0212 on 25 Oct 2026, 21% below its 8 Sep level and 56% under its high. Price path since September and the 24 Nov 2026 unlock.
92. TIA this week: +20% in seven days, positive funding on perps — Celestia closed the week at $0.0₁₁0 (+20.2% in 7 days, +26.9% in 30). Market cap, the seven-day range and what the ZIPMEX perp market is charging to hold a position, with sources.
93. BERA this week: +5% in seven days, negative funding on perps — Berachain closed the week at $0.1831 (+4.8% in 7 days, +17.7% in 30). Market cap, the seven-day range and what the ZIPMEX perp market is charging to hold a position, with sources.
94. S this week: +5% in seven days, positive funding on perps — Sonic closed the week at $0.0₁₁0 (+5.4% in 7 days, +25.0% in 30). Market cap, the seven-day range and what the ZIPMEX perp market is charging to hold a position, with sources.
95. Algorand Latest News 2026: Partnerships, xGov & Complete Guide — Discover Algorand's latest news, major partnerships, and xGov governance program in 2026. Learn how to earn rewards and whether ALGO is worth investing in.
96. HBAR this week: +6% in seven days, positive funding on perps — Hedera closed the week at $0.07965 (+5.7% in 7 days, +15.6% in 30). Market cap, the seven-day range and what the ZIPMEX perp market is charging to hold a position, with sources.
97. TRX on September 8, 2026: a quiet week before the first US staked TRX ETF — TRX ended the week to September 8, 2026 near $0.335, up about 0.6%. The next day the first US spot staked TRX ETF began trading.
98. BNB, week to 8 September 2026: up 7% in seven days, 23% in thirty — BNB rose about 7% in the week to 8 September 2026 and 23% over 30 days, two weeks after the Pasteur hard fork. Dated CoinGecko figures.
99. BNB Chain zero-fee USDC, USD1 and U transfers: routes, limits and the Oct. 31, 2026 deadline — BNB Chain waives fees on USDC, USD1 and U until Oct. 31, 2026: exchange withdrawals, direct BSC wallet transfers (USDC 2 a day) and two USDC bridges.
100. MNT this week: +15% in seven days, positive funding on perps — Mantle closed the week at $0.6216 (+14.8% in 7 days, +46.7% in 30). Market cap, the seven-day range and what the ZIPMEX perp market is charging to hold a position, with sources.
101. XPL this week: +13% in seven days, negative funding on perps — Plasma closed the week at $0.09346 (+13.1% in 7 days, +21.3% in 30). Market cap, the seven-day range and what the ZIPMEX perp market is charging to hold a position, with sources.
102. MERL this week: +15% in seven days, positive funding on perps — Merlin Chain closed the week at $0.02279 (+15.0% in 7 days, +24.9% in 30). Market cap, the seven-day range and what the ZIPMEX perp market is charging to hold a position, with sources.
103. INJ, week to 8 September 2026: up about 25% as Injective added a $1B mortgage-records deal — INJ rose about 25% in the week to 8 Sept 2026, from $4.93 to $6.18 on CoinGecko data. The week's Injective news, price levels and what has changed since.
104. LayerZero (ZRO), week to 8 September 2026: up about 11% to $1.13, still 85% below its peak — ZRO traded near $1.13 on 8 Sep 2026, up about 11% in a week and 34% in a month. The range, supply and what LayerZero has said about the token.
105. W this week: +14% in seven days, 97,481 holders — Wormhole Token closed the week at $0.01034 (+13.9% in 7 days, +21.9% in 30). What the chain says about holders, flows, funding and safety, with sources.
106. W contract address: how to verify it and avoid fake tokens — The official Wormhole Token mint on Solana, the bridged versions on 3 networks, three ways to verify an address and four scams that borrow the W name.
107. Litecoin, week to 8 September 2026: up 12.8% as trading volume climbed — LTC rose 12.8% in the week to 8 September 2026 to $55.41, on volume about 46% above its 31-day average. Range, market cap and what followed, with sources.
108. Monero (XMR) week to 8 September 2026: 3% lower after a 14% swing — XMR was at $505.05 at 13:00 UTC on 8 September 2026, down 3% on the week after a $494–$563 range. Data from CoinGecko, project news from getmonero.org.
109. ZEC in the week to 8 September 2026: up 36% as the Zcash ETF passed $500 million — Zcash traded near $1,155 on 8 Sept 2026, up about 36% in a week, as Grayscale's ZCSH ETF passed $500M in assets. Range, drivers, sources.
110. BCH this week: +2% in seven days, positive funding on perps — Bitcoin Cash closed the week at $252.72 (+2.3% in 7 days, +16.8% in 30). Market cap, the seven-day range and what the ZIPMEX perp market is charging to hold a position, with sources.
111. HNT this week: -24% in seven days, 537,628 holders — Helium Network Token closed the week at $0.5623 (-23.6% in 7 days, +195.5% in 30). What the chain says about holders, flows, funding and safety, with sources.
112. HNT contract address: how to verify it and avoid fake tokens — The official Helium Network Token mint on Solana, the bridged versions on 0 networks, three ways to verify an address and four scams that borrow the HNT name.